Norman Malcolm's ~Alternative~ Ontological Argument

I can't take the word "alternative" seriously since I was made aware of Hot Topic and "scene kidz".

Moving onto the important stuff.


Norman Malcolm was an American philosopher writing in the mid-20th century, who wrote his own version of the ontological argument. As it is still a form of the ontological argument, it remains a priori in nature. It deals with the necessity of God's existence, and begins with an implied, rather than stated (as is the case in Anselm and Descartes' versions), definition of God.

The basic argument follows:

1. If God does not exist, his existence is impossible.
2. If God does exist, his existence is necessary.
3. God's existence is either necessary or impossible.
4. God's existence is not impossible.
5. Therefore, God's existence is necessary.

At first glance, it is fairly straightforward to follow, but as with any argument for the existence of God, it raises questions.

You might wonder why God has to be either "impossible" or "necessary", with no other options. This is explained by the implied definition of God I was referring to earlier - God is immutable, and to be immutable means to be unchanging. This closes off the options of God being either "contingently non-existent" or "contingently existent". If God were either of these things, it would suggest that God is dependent upon a set of particular circumstances for his existence, which, if changed, would lead to him changing the condition of his existence. It would limit God is some way, and this cannot be true of an immutable God. 

We are left with two options - God exists necessarily, or God does not exist necessarily. This can also be phrased as God's existence being necessarily true, or necessarily false. Malcolm sees impossible statements as those that are logically self-contradictory, such as "this square is round". The statement "God exists" is never self-contradictory, and it is possible to think that it is true, and so we are left with this option alone. 

Therefore, God exists and "necessary existence" is a predicate of God.

The last bit is a bit headache inducing...

Key Thinkers in Modern Liberalism

John Rawls:

• American academic and political philosopher.
• A Theory of Justice (1970) is often regarded as the greatest political philosophy written since WWII. Influenced modern liberal and social democratic thought.

Used a form of social contract theory to reconcile individualism with social justice and economic redistribution. "Justice as fairness" is based on the belief that behind the "veil of ignorance" (not knowing your social position and circumstance) most people would favour two basic principles: (1) the liberty of each person should be compatible with a like liberty of all, and (2) that social inequality should only exist if it works to the benefit of the poorest of society. Universalist ideas changed over time.

Writings: A Theory of Justice (1970) and Political Liberalism (1993)

Key Thinkers in Classical Liberalism

John Locke (1632-1704):

• English philosopher and politician.
• Views developed against the background of the Glorious Revolution (1688).

Consistent opponent of absolutism and seen as one of the most influential philosophers of the Glorious Revolution, which established a constitutional monarchy. A key thinker in the earliest forms of liberalism. Accepted that human beings are equal and free by nature, but prioritised property rights which prevented him from endorsing political equality or "modern" democracy.

Writings: A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689) and Two Treatises of Government (1690).

Adam Smith (1723-90):

• Scottish economist and philosopher.
• Seen as the founder of the 'dismal silence'. 

Smith developed a theory of motivations that attempted to reconcile human self-interestedness and unregulated social order. Created the first systematic attempt to explain the workings of the economy in market terms and emphasizing the importance of division of labour. A free-market theorist, aware of the limitations of a laissez-faire system.

Writings: The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) and The Wealth of Nations (1776).

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826):

• American statesman and political philosopher.
• First Secretary of State (1789-94) and third POTUS (1801-9).
• Principle author of the Declaration of Independence.

Developed a democratic form of agrarianism - a blend of rule by natural aristocracy, limited government and a laissez-faire market. Expressed sympathy for social reform; favoured the extension of public education, the abolition of slavery and greater economic equality. "Jeffersonianism" has come to mean resistance to strong government and a stress on individual rights and responsibilities.

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832):

• English philosopher, legal reformer and founder of Utilitarianism.
• Ideas formed the basis of philosophical radicalism which was responsible for many of the social and legal reforms in Victorian Britain.

Developed an allegedly scientific alternative to natural rights theory. A moral system based on the concept that human beings are rational and self-interested creatures ("utility maximisers"). Created the 'principle of general utility' - "the greatest happiness for the greatest number" - which justified laissez-faire economics, constitutional reform and political democracy.

Writings: Fragments on Government (1776) and Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789).

James Madison (1751-1836):

• American statesman and political theorist.
• Advocate of American nationalism (Continental Congress; 1774 and 1775)
• Played a part in the establishment of the Constitutional Convention (1778) and had a major role in writing the American constitution.
• Fourth POTUS (1809-17).

Proponent of pluralism and divided government. Urged the adoption of bicameralism and the tripartite separation of powers in the US government. "Madisonianism" implies a strong emphasis on checks and balances as the resistance against tyranny. However, when in office Madison was prepared to strengthen the power of the government.

Writings: Contributions to The Federalist (1787-8), which campaigned for constitutional ratification. 

John Stuart Mill (1806-73):

• English philosopher, economist and politician.
• Utilitarian background (Father - James Mill).
• MP for Westminster 1865 - 1881.

Seen to be the thinker who bridged the gap between modern and classical liberalism. Opposition to collectivist tendencies and traditions are classical views, whereas his emphasis on the quality of individual life, his commitment to "individuality", his sympathy for female suffrage and workers' cooperatives are more reminiscent of modern liberalism.

Writings: On Liberty (1859), Considerations on Representative Government (1861) and The Subjection of Women (1869).